History of Rome — Spring

Septimius Severus, Roman Emperor from 193 to 211

 

From 98 AD to 190 AD there were four emperors. From 235 to 284 there were twenty emperors. This shocking contrast in imperial stability and instability tells us that something happened around the year 200 AD and that the empire was never the same again. Whatever stability was built into the imperial system by Augustus which survived even the shenanigans of Caligula and Nero, did not survive long the death of Marcus Aurelius. The one emperor who did establish some stability in the period of chaos was Septimius Severus. Septimius Severus was Roman Emperor from 193 to 211. Severus was born in Leptis Magna in the province of Africa. As a young man he advanced through the "cursus honorumân” (the customary succession of offices) under the reigns of Marcus Aurelius and Commodus. Severus seized power after the death of Emperor Pertinax in 193 during the Year of the Five Emperors.

REQUIRED READING

Eusebius (260 - 340 AD) is the most important historian of the early church whose work survives. His history from the beginning of with Jesus Christ in Bk I, goes to our period in the last chapters. We are most interested in those last chapters on the age of Diocletian and Constantine. You may want to start out reading his Book I and then skip forward to the later chapters on Diocletian and Constantine. For this first week, Book 7 would be a good introduction on the spreading heresies. Next week there are Books 8 and 9 on Diocletian. And the following week Book 10 on the triumph of Constantine.

HIGHLY RECOMMENDED BOOK
FOR THE WHOLE YEAR OF HISTORY OF ROME

You will all want one book to use as an introduction and as a kind of reference book to search out answers and maps and other study helps for this year of study on ancient Rome. I have searched for such a book, and although there are newer ones than this classic by one of the truly great experts on Rome, there really is nothing better. This is a one-volume, basic introduction to the whole subject of our year of study. It covers the period from the Republic to the Decline and Fall. So I encourage you to get a copy of this book. It is out of print so you will have to sort through the used book options but there are many copies available as of August, 2013. Don't buy the "new" from the UK since I have no idea whether this is a quality reprint or not. So go get a used hardcover for $10.00. At that price amazon says "very good" so that's a great deal. A used hardcover is more likely to have endured in good shape than a paperback. But we may exhaust the supplies of used hardcovers so donut be afraid of a used paperback if the seller says it is in excellent condition. There are many used paperback copies that they describe as "like new," so there is nothing wrong with that.

HIGHLY RECOMMENDED BOOK FOR SPRING QUARTER:

Diocletian (Gaius Aurelius Valerius Diocletianus, c. 245 – 312)

 

Diocletian was Roman emperor from 284 to 305. Born to a family of low status in the Roman province of Dalmatia, Diocletian rose through the ranks of the military to become cavalry commander to the Emperor Carus. After the deaths of Carus and his son Numerian on campaign in Persia, Diocletian was proclaimed emperor. The title was also claimed by Carus' other surviving son, Carinus, but Diocletian defeated him in the Battle of the Margus. Diocletian's reign stabilized the empire and marks the end of the Crisis of the Third Century. He appointed fellow officer Maximian as augustus, co-emperor, in 285. Diocletian delegated further on 1 March 293, appointing Galerius and Constantius as caesars, junior co-emperors. Under this 'tetrarchy', or "rule of four", each emperor would rule over a quarter-division of the empire. Diocletian secured the empire's borders and purged it of all threats to his power. He defeated the Sarmatians and Carpi during several campaigns between 285 and 299, the Alamanni in 288, and usurpers in Egypt between 297 and 298. Galerius, aided by Diocletian, campaigned successfully against Sassanid Persia, the empire's traditional enemy. In 299 he sacked their capital, Ctesiphon. Diocletian led the subsequent negotiations and achieved a lasting and favorable peace. (Wikipedia.)

READING:

Michael Grant, History of Rome, Part VIII, Chapter 19, "The Supreme State and the Church."

REQUIRED READING

Eusebius (260 - 340 AD) is the most important historian of the early church whose work survives. His history from the beginning of Christianity with Jesus Christ in Bk I, goes forward to our period in the last chapters. We are most interested in those last chapters on the age of Diocletian and Constantine. You may want to start out reading his Book I and then skip forward to the later chapters on Diocletian and Constantine. For this first week, Book 7 would be a good introduction on the spreading heresies. Next week there are Books 8 and 9 on Diocletian. And the following week Book 10 on the triumph of Constantine.

PICTURES

Diocletian's Palace at Split, Croatia. Diocletian's Palace is a building in Split, Croatia, that was built by the Roman emperor Diocletian at the turn of the fourth century AD. Diocletian built the massive palace in preparation for his retirement on 1 May 305 AD. It lies in a bay on the south side of a short peninsula running out from the Dalmatian coast, four miles from Salona, the capital of the Roman province of Dalmatia. The terrain slopes gently seaward with low limestone ridges running east to west with marl in the clefts between them.

Constantine the Great (Latin: Flavius Valerius Aurelius Constantinus; 27 February 27, 272 to May 22, 337)

 

Constantine was Roman Emperor from 306 to 337. Constantine was the son of Flavius Valerius Constantius, a Roman army officer, and his consort Helena. His father became Caesar, the deputy emperor in the west in 293. Constantine was sent east, where he rose through the ranks to become a military tribune under the emperors Diocletian and Galerius. In 305, Constantius was raised to the rank of Augustus, senior western emperor, and Constantine was recalled west to campaign under his father in Britannia. Acclaimed as emperor by the army after his father's death in 306, Constantine emerged victorious in a series of civil wars against the emperors Maxentius and Licinius to become sole ruler of both west and east by 324. As emperor, Constantine enacted many administrative, financial, social, and military reforms to strengthen the empire. The government was restructured and civil and military authority separated. A new gold coin, the solidus, was introduced to combat inflation. It would become the standard for Byzantine and European currencies for more than a thousand years. The first Roman emperor to convert to Christianity, Constantine played an influential role in the proclamation of the Edict of Milan, which decreed religious tolerance throughout the empire. He called the First Council of Nicaea in 325, at which the Nicene Creed was professed by Christians. In military matters, the Roman army was reorganized to consist of mobile field units and garrison soldiers capable of countering internal threats and barbarian invasions. Constantine pursued successful campaigns against the tribes on the Roman frontiers, ”the Franks, the Alamanni, the Goths, and the Sarmatiansâ, even resettling territories abandoned by his predecessors during the turmoil of the previous century. (The above from Wikipedia.)

READING:

Michael Grant, History of Rome, Part VIII, Chapter 19, "The Supreme State and the Church."

REQUIRED READING

Eusebius (260 - 340 AD) is the most important historian of the early church whose work survives. His history from the beginning of Christianity with Jesus Christ in Bk I, goes forward to our period in the last chapters. We are most interested in those last chapters on the age of Diocletian and Constantine. This week: Book 10 on the triumph of Constantine.

RECOMMENDED READING

HIGHLY RECOMMENDED BOOK FOR SPRING QUARTER:

PICTURES

The life and work of Empress Helen: Bethlehem, Jerusalem, Rome.

David Potter in his book on Constantine, Constantine, The Emperor: "The Roman Emperor Constantine changed the world. For many millions of people across this planet, an institution that he introduced and promoted has become a central part of their lives; they use or hear words that he approved. In the twenty-first century, Constantine is best known as the Roman emperor who converted to Christianity and in so doing made it possible for Christianity to become a world religion. Without Constantine, Christianity probably would not occupy the place that it does today. Without him it is unlikely that Christianity would have emerged from the mass of conflicting, if often quite similar, belief systems coexisting in the empire into which he was born. . . . the immense impact of Christian thought upon the behaviors and thinking of the many generations who came after Constantine makes it very difficult to imagine a world without it. When he was born around AD 282, it would have been far easier to imagine a world in which Christianity had a marginal place."

At the right you will find a copy of the Nicene Creed adopted at the Council of Nicaea in 325 and amended at the Council of Constantinople in 381. The text here provided uses the language that is used in almost all the various denominations in both Roman Catholic and Protestant Christianity. The Roman Catholic church has just recently adopted a new word, "consubstantial," which I think is not helpful, since no one suggested using this word in 325.  Why complicate the problems of a public creed by introducing a new word 1700 years after the adoption of the original creed? It makes no sense to me. (Note: WHF)

READING:

Michael Grant, History of Rome, Part VIII, Chapter 19, "The Supreme State and the Church."

REQUIRED READING

This week: Book 10 on the triumph of Constantine.

RECOMMENDED READING

PICTURES

The earliest churches of Rome, built in the immediate aftermath of the Edict of Milan in 313 which now permitted the construction of public houses of worship for the Christians and other non-Roman religions. (Ex: Mithra)

Some of the churches:

1. Santa Pudenziana.
2. Santa Maria Maggiore
3. Santa Prassede
4. San Clemente

Athanasius of Alexandria was Bishop of Alexandria for 45 years from 328 to 373

During this half a century, he fought almost alone at times, to preserve his understanding of the orthodox or "correct" interpretation of the nature of Jesus of Nazareth. During this same period, a new interpretation, a dangerously beguiling new interpretation arose in his own city developed by another great Christian leader, Arius.

These two men led an international debate that took over every discussion every decision within the church during the later fourth century. Now when we look back, Athanasius seems Herculean in his resolute conviction about the Trinitarian nature of God and the Son of God. This is our subject this week and we will also look at Athanasius' city of Alexandria, second only to Rome in the development of Christian thinking in the fourth century.

RECOMMENDED READING

Ambrose of Milan (Latin: Aurelius Ambrosius; c. 339 – c. 397)

Ambrosius, better known in English as Saint Ambrose (ca. 340 to 397), was an archbishop of Milan who became one of the most influential ecclesiastical figures of the 4th century. He was consular prefect of Liguria and Emilia, headquartered in Milan, before being made bishop of Milan by popular acclamation in 374. Ambrose was a staunch opponent of Arianism. Ambrose is traditionally credited with promoting "antiphonal chant", a method of chanting where one side of the choir alternately responds to the other; and the composition of Veni redemptor gentium (a Christmas hymn). Ambrose was one of the four original doctors of the Church, and is the patron saint of Milan. He is notable for his influence on St. Augustine. (The above is taken from Wikipedia article on Ambrose.)

Our evening on Ambrose will allow us to explore the city of Milan. By the middle of the fourth century, Milan had become the most exciting, the most progressive, the most challenging city in Italy. Rome had been replaced by the ancient northern city whose roots went back to pre-Roman Celtic times.

There remains a considerable amount of Roman Milan to be seen during a visit to the city.

RECOMMENDED READING

PICTURES

A visit to Roman Milan. Here below you see the Baptistry where Ambrose baptized Augustine in 387 AD. The Baptistry is now under the Medieval Cathedral of Milan, but like so much of Roman Milan, it is preserved and allows us to appreciate the greatness of the Milan of Ambrose.

Theodoric the Great (Latin: Flāvius Theoderīcus; 454 – 30 August 526)

 

Theoderic the Great (454 to 526), often referred to as Theodoric, was king of the Germanic Ostrogoths, ruler of Italy, regent of the Visigoths, and a viceroy of the Eastern Roman Empire. His Gothic name Þiudareiks translates into "people-king" or "ruler of the people". Theoderic was born in Pannonia in 454, after his people had defeated the Huns at the Battle of Nedao. His father was King Theodemir, a Germanic Amali nobleman, and his mother was Ereleuva. Theoderic grew up as a hostage in Constantinople, receiving a privileged education, and he succeeded his father as leader of the Pannonian Ostrogoths in 473. Settling his people in lower Moesia, Theoderic came into conflict with Thracian Ostrogoths led by Theodoric Strabo, whom he eventually supplanted, uniting the peoples in 484. Byzantine Emperor Zeno subsequently gave him the title of Patrician and the office of Magister militum (master of the soldiers), and even appointed him as Roman Consul. Seeking further gains, Theoderic frequently ravaged the provinces of the Eastern Roman Empire, eventually threatening Constantinople itself. In 488, Emperor Zeno ordered Theoderic to overthrow the German Foederatus Odoacer, who had likewise been made patrician and even King of Italy, but who had since betrayed Zeno, supporting the rebellious Leontius. After a victorious three-year war, Theoderic killed Odoacer with his own hands, settled his 100,000 to 200,000 people in Italy, and founded an Ostrogothic Kingdom based in Ravenna. While he promoted separation between the Arian Ostrogoths and the Roman population, Theoderic stressed the importance of racial harmony,though intermarriage was outlawed. Seeking to restore the glory of Ancient Rome, he ruled Italy in its most peaceful and prosperous period since Valentinian, until his death in 526. Memories of his reign made him a hero of German legend as Dietrich von Bern. (The above from Wikipedia.)

PICTURES

Theodoric in Ravenna.

Here below you see a photograph of Theodoric's tomb in Ravenna, the single most elaborate and influential work of architecture of the "Gothic" period of  the late Roman Imperial period. It was a model for Charlemagne's cathedral in Aachen, Germany.

From Wikipedia: The current structure of the mausoleum is divided into two decagonal orders, one above the other; both are made of Istria stone. Its roof is a single 300–ton Istrian stone, 10 meters in diameter. A niche leads down to a room that was probably a chapel for funeral liturgies; a stair leads to the upper floor. Located in the center of the floor is a circular porphyry stone grave, in which Theoderic was buried. His remains were removed during Byzantine rule, when the mausoleum was turned into a Christian oratory. In the late 19th century, silting from a nearby rivulet that had partly submerged the mausoleum was drained and excavated. It was inscribed with seven other "Early Christian Monuments and Mosaics of Ravenna" buildings as one of the UNESCO World Heritage Sites in 1996. According to the ICOMOS evaluation, "the significance of the mausoleum lies in its Gothic style and decoration, which owe nothing to Roman or Byzantine art, although it makes use of the Roman stone construction technique of opus quadratum, which had been abandoned four centuries before" and in the fact that "it is the only surviving example of a tomb of a king of this period."

Anicius Manlius Severinus Boethius, c. 477 – 524 AD

 

At the right you see a fifteenth-century printed edition of Boethius' work The Consolation of Philosophy, printed in Ghent in 1485, with this beautiful hand painted rendition of Boethius with Lady Philosophy. This work was the most influential work of philosophy of the whole Late Antiquity period. Boethius was influential as the "Last Roman" or the "Last Classical Philosopher" before the onset of the Dark Ages. Boethius was the last of the bilingual Romans who knew all of the ancient Greek philosophy of Plato and Aristotle and also knew the whole of the Latin philosophical tradition. His greatest service to this tradition was to begin to translate all of Plato and Aristotle into Latin. This project came at a critical moment. The documents of the Greek philosophical tradition were all still available and therefore a scholar like Boethius could still conceivably complete this project if he had the time to do it.

Unfortunately, Boethius' time was short. In 525, he was executed by Theodoric in the mistaken belief that Boethius was plotting against him with the Byzantine emperor. This plot was a fiction and Theodoric lived to regret his stupid action. But for the history of philosophy the early death of Boethius was a tragedy that left the whole of the Medieval period with a truncated idea of what the Greeks had thought about things. It favored Aristotle since it was the work of Aristotle that Boethius managed to translate, and it neglected Plato because most of the Platonic works were not translated by Boethius. They were not translated into Latin until the Renaissance. Boethius is an extraordinary presence in the Middle Ages. Everyone with any education read and treasured The Consolation of Philosophy.

Here is more about Boethius from Wikipedia:

Anicius Manlius Severinus Boethius, commonly called Boethius (c. 480-524 or 525 AD), was a philosopher of the early 6th century. He was born in Rome to the ancient and prominent Anicia family, which included emperors Petronius Maximus and Olybrius and many consuls. His father, Flavius Manlius Boethius, was consul in 487 after Odoacer deposed the last Western Roman Emperor. Boethius himself entered public life at a young age and was already a senator by the age of 25. He was consul in 510 in the kingdom of the Ostrogoths. In 522 he saw his two sons become consuls. Boethius was imprisoned and eventually executed by King Theodoric the Great, who suspected him of conspiring with the Eastern Roman Empire. While jailed, Boethius composed his Consolation of Philosophy, a philosophical treatise on fortune, death, and other issues. The Consolation became one of the most popular and influential works of the Middle Ages.

REQUIRED READING

Reading Boethius. We will read the whole of The Consolation of Philosophy. It is only about 100 pages and a pleasure to read. Remember this was written while Boethius was in prison awaiting his fate. He had to consider that this might be his last work and therefore he examined his life and what was worth doing and what was worth learning. Therefore it is much more than just a reflection on classical learning and more than that, it is a reflection on the good life and why we are here.

RECOMMENDED READING

BELOW: Boethius imprisoned, discussing philosophy, as seen in this manuscript illumination by Gregorius of Genoa in 1385.

Justinian I  (Latin: Flavius Petrus Sabbatius Iustinianus, 482 – 14 November 565

 

During his reign, Justinian sought to revive the empire's greatness and reconquer the lost western half of the historical Roman Empire. One of the most important figures of late antiquity and the last Roman emperor to speak Latin as a first language,  Justinian's rule constitutes a distinct epoch in the history of the eastern Roman empire. The impact of his administration extended far beyond the boundaries of his time and domain. Justinian's reign is marked by the ambitious but only partly realized renovatio imperii, or "restoration of the Empire". Because of his restoration activities, Justinian has sometimes been called the "last Roman" in modern historiography. This ambition was expressed by the partial recovery of the territories of the defunct western Roman empire. His general, Belisarius, swiftly conquered the Vandal kingdom in North Africa, extending Roman control to the Atlantic Ocean. Subsequently Belisarius, Narses, and other generals conquered the Ostrogothic kingdom, restoring Dalmatia, Sicily, Italy, and Rome to the empire after more than half a century of rule by the Ostrogoths.

(The above excerpted from the Wikipedia article on Justinian)

READING:

Michael Grant, History of Rome, Part IX, "The Transformation of Europe."

REQUIRED READING

About the Secret History from Wikipedia: The famous Secret History (Lat. Historia Arcana) was discovered centuries later in the Vatican Library and published by Niccolo Alamanni in 1623 at Lyons. Its existence was already known from the Suda, which referred to it as the Anekdota. The Secret History covers roughly the same years as the first seven books of Procopius' earlier work of history, History of Justinian's Wars and appears to have been written after they were published. Current consensus generally dates it to 550 or 558, or maybe even as late as 562. The Secret History reveals an author who had become deeply disillusioned with the emperor Justinian and his wife, Empress Theodora, as well as Belisarius, his former commander and patron, and Antonina, Belisarius' wife. The anecdotes claim to expose the secret springs of their public actions, as well as the private lives of the emperor, his wife and their entourage. Justinian is portrayed as cruel, venal, prodigal and incompetent; as for Theodora, the reader is treated to the most detailed and titillating portrayals of vulgarity and insatiable lust combined with shrewish and calculating mean-spiritedness.

HIGHLY RECOMMENDED BOOK
ON JUSTINIAN AND THEODORA

PICTURES

San Vitale at Ravenna

LAST CLASS OF THE YEAR

Septimius Severus, Roman Emperor from 193 to 211

 

From 98 AD to 190 AD there were four emperors. From 235 to 284 there were twenty emperors. This shocking contrast in imperial stability and instability tells us that something happened around the year 200 AD and that the empire was never the same again. Whatever stability was built into the imperial system by Augustus which survived even the shenanigans of Caligula and Nero, did not survive long the death of Marcus Aurelius. The one emperor who did establish some stability in the period of chaos was Septimius Severus. Septimius Severus was Roman Emperor from 193 to 211. Severus was born in Leptis Magna in the province of Africa. As a young man he advanced through the "cursus honorumân” (the customary succession of offices) under the reigns of Marcus Aurelius and Commodus. Severus seized power after the death of Emperor Pertinax in 193 during the Year of the Five Emperors.

REQUIRED READING

Eusebius (260 - 340 AD) is the most important historian of the early church whose work survives. His history from the beginning of with Jesus Christ in Bk I, goes to our period in the last chapters. We are most interested in those last chapters on the age of Diocletian and Constantine. You may want to start out reading his Book I and then skip forward to the later chapters on Diocletian and Constantine. For this first week, Book 7 would be a good introduction on the spreading heresies. Next week there are Books 8 and 9 on Diocletian. And the following week Book 10 on the triumph of Constantine.

HIGHLY RECOMMENDED BOOK
FOR THE WHOLE YEAR OF HISTORY OF ROME

You will all want one book to use as an introduction and as a kind of reference book to search out answers and maps and other study helps for this year of study on ancient Rome. I have searched for such a book, and although there are newer ones than this classic by one of the truly great experts on Rome, there really is nothing better. This is a one-volume, basic introduction to the whole subject of our year of study. It covers the period from the Republic to the Decline and Fall. So I encourage you to get a copy of this book. It is out of print so you will have to sort through the used book options but there are many copies available as of August, 2013. Don't buy the "new" from the UK since I have no idea whether this is a quality reprint or not. So go get a used hardcover for $10.00. At that price amazon says "very good" so that's a great deal. A used hardcover is more likely to have endured in good shape than a paperback. But we may exhaust the supplies of used hardcovers so donut be afraid of a used paperback if the seller says it is in excellent condition. There are many used paperback copies that they describe as "like new," so there is nothing wrong with that.

HIGHLY RECOMMENDED BOOK FOR SPRING QUARTER:

Diocletian (Gaius Aurelius Valerius Diocletianus, c. 245 – 312)

 

Diocletian was Roman emperor from 284 to 305. Born to a family of low status in the Roman province of Dalmatia, Diocletian rose through the ranks of the military to become cavalry commander to the Emperor Carus. After the deaths of Carus and his son Numerian on campaign in Persia, Diocletian was proclaimed emperor. The title was also claimed by Carus' other surviving son, Carinus, but Diocletian defeated him in the Battle of the Margus. Diocletian's reign stabilized the empire and marks the end of the Crisis of the Third Century. He appointed fellow officer Maximian as augustus, co-emperor, in 285. Diocletian delegated further on 1 March 293, appointing Galerius and Constantius as caesars, junior co-emperors. Under this 'tetrarchy', or "rule of four", each emperor would rule over a quarter-division of the empire. Diocletian secured the empire's borders and purged it of all threats to his power. He defeated the Sarmatians and Carpi during several campaigns between 285 and 299, the Alamanni in 288, and usurpers in Egypt between 297 and 298. Galerius, aided by Diocletian, campaigned successfully against Sassanid Persia, the empire's traditional enemy. In 299 he sacked their capital, Ctesiphon. Diocletian led the subsequent negotiations and achieved a lasting and favorable peace. (Wikipedia.)

READING:

Michael Grant, History of Rome, Part VIII, Chapter 19, "The Supreme State and the Church."

REQUIRED READING

Eusebius (260 - 340 AD) is the most important historian of the early church whose work survives. His history from the beginning of Christianity with Jesus Christ in Bk I, goes forward to our period in the last chapters. We are most interested in those last chapters on the age of Diocletian and Constantine. You may want to start out reading his Book I and then skip forward to the later chapters on Diocletian and Constantine. For this first week, Book 7 would be a good introduction on the spreading heresies. Next week there are Books 8 and 9 on Diocletian. And the following week Book 10 on the triumph of Constantine.

PICTURES

Diocletian's Palace at Split, Croatia. Diocletian's Palace is a building in Split, Croatia, that was built by the Roman emperor Diocletian at the turn of the fourth century AD. Diocletian built the massive palace in preparation for his retirement on 1 May 305 AD. It lies in a bay on the south side of a short peninsula running out from the Dalmatian coast, four miles from Salona, the capital of the Roman province of Dalmatia. The terrain slopes gently seaward with low limestone ridges running east to west with marl in the clefts between them.

Constantine the Great (Latin: Flavius Valerius Aurelius Constantinus; 27 February 27, 272 to May 22, 337)

 

Constantine was Roman Emperor from 306 to 337. Constantine was the son of Flavius Valerius Constantius, a Roman army officer, and his consort Helena. His father became Caesar, the deputy emperor in the west in 293. Constantine was sent east, where he rose through the ranks to become a military tribune under the emperors Diocletian and Galerius. In 305, Constantius was raised to the rank of Augustus, senior western emperor, and Constantine was recalled west to campaign under his father in Britannia. Acclaimed as emperor by the army after his father's death in 306, Constantine emerged victorious in a series of civil wars against the emperors Maxentius and Licinius to become sole ruler of both west and east by 324. As emperor, Constantine enacted many administrative, financial, social, and military reforms to strengthen the empire. The government was restructured and civil and military authority separated. A new gold coin, the solidus, was introduced to combat inflation. It would become the standard for Byzantine and European currencies for more than a thousand years. The first Roman emperor to convert to Christianity, Constantine played an influential role in the proclamation of the Edict of Milan, which decreed religious tolerance throughout the empire. He called the First Council of Nicaea in 325, at which the Nicene Creed was professed by Christians. In military matters, the Roman army was reorganized to consist of mobile field units and garrison soldiers capable of countering internal threats and barbarian invasions. Constantine pursued successful campaigns against the tribes on the Roman frontiers, ”the Franks, the Alamanni, the Goths, and the Sarmatiansâ, even resettling territories abandoned by his predecessors during the turmoil of the previous century. (The above from Wikipedia.)

READING:

Michael Grant, History of Rome, Part VIII, Chapter 19, "The Supreme State and the Church."

REQUIRED READING

Eusebius (260 - 340 AD) is the most important historian of the early church whose work survives. His history from the beginning of Christianity with Jesus Christ in Bk I, goes forward to our period in the last chapters. We are most interested in those last chapters on the age of Diocletian and Constantine. This week: Book 10 on the triumph of Constantine.

RECOMMENDED READING

HIGHLY RECOMMENDED BOOK FOR SPRING QUARTER:

PICTURES

The life and work of Empress Helen: Bethlehem, Jerusalem, Rome.

David Potter in his book on Constantine, Constantine, The Emperor: "The Roman Emperor Constantine changed the world. For many millions of people across this planet, an institution that he introduced and promoted has become a central part of their lives; they use or hear words that he approved. In the twenty-first century, Constantine is best known as the Roman emperor who converted to Christianity and in so doing made it possible for Christianity to become a world religion. Without Constantine, Christianity probably would not occupy the place that it does today. Without him it is unlikely that Christianity would have emerged from the mass of conflicting, if often quite similar, belief systems coexisting in the empire into which he was born. . . . the immense impact of Christian thought upon the behaviors and thinking of the many generations who came after Constantine makes it very difficult to imagine a world without it. When he was born around AD 282, it would have been far easier to imagine a world in which Christianity had a marginal place."

At the right you will find a copy of the Nicene Creed adopted at the Council of Nicaea in 325 and amended at the Council of Constantinople in 381. The text here provided uses the language that is used in almost all the various denominations in both Roman Catholic and Protestant Christianity. The Roman Catholic church has just recently adopted a new word, "consubstantial," which I think is not helpful, since no one suggested using this word in 325.  Why complicate the problems of a public creed by introducing a new word 1700 years after the adoption of the original creed? It makes no sense to me. (Note: WHF)

READING:

Michael Grant, History of Rome, Part VIII, Chapter 19, "The Supreme State and the Church."

REQUIRED READING

This week: Book 10 on the triumph of Constantine.

RECOMMENDED READING

PICTURES

The earliest churches of Rome, built in the immediate aftermath of the Edict of Milan in 313 which now permitted the construction of public houses of worship for the Christians and other non-Roman religions. (Ex: Mithra)

Some of the churches:

1. Santa Pudenziana.
2. Santa Maria Maggiore
3. Santa Prassede
4. San Clemente

Athanasius of Alexandria was Bishop of Alexandria for 45 years from 328 to 373

During this half a century, he fought almost alone at times, to preserve his understanding of the orthodox or "correct" interpretation of the nature of Jesus of Nazareth. During this same period, a new interpretation, a dangerously beguiling new interpretation arose in his own city developed by another great Christian leader, Arius.

These two men led an international debate that took over every discussion every decision within the church during the later fourth century. Now when we look back, Athanasius seems Herculean in his resolute conviction about the Trinitarian nature of God and the Son of God. This is our subject this week and we will also look at Athanasius' city of Alexandria, second only to Rome in the development of Christian thinking in the fourth century.

RECOMMENDED READING

Ambrose of Milan (Latin: Aurelius Ambrosius; c. 339 – c. 397)

Ambrosius, better known in English as Saint Ambrose (ca. 340 to 397), was an archbishop of Milan who became one of the most influential ecclesiastical figures of the 4th century. He was consular prefect of Liguria and Emilia, headquartered in Milan, before being made bishop of Milan by popular acclamation in 374. Ambrose was a staunch opponent of Arianism. Ambrose is traditionally credited with promoting "antiphonal chant", a method of chanting where one side of the choir alternately responds to the other; and the composition of Veni redemptor gentium (a Christmas hymn). Ambrose was one of the four original doctors of the Church, and is the patron saint of Milan. He is notable for his influence on St. Augustine. (The above is taken from Wikipedia article on Ambrose.)

Our evening on Ambrose will allow us to explore the city of Milan. By the middle of the fourth century, Milan had become the most exciting, the most progressive, the most challenging city in Italy. Rome had been replaced by the ancient northern city whose roots went back to pre-Roman Celtic times.

There remains a considerable amount of Roman Milan to be seen during a visit to the city.

RECOMMENDED READING

PICTURES

A visit to Roman Milan. Here below you see the Baptistry where Ambrose baptized Augustine in 387 AD. The Baptistry is now under the Medieval Cathedral of Milan, but like so much of Roman Milan, it is preserved and allows us to appreciate the greatness of the Milan of Ambrose.

Theodoric the Great (Latin: Flāvius Theoderīcus; 454 – 30 August 526)

 

Theoderic the Great (454 to 526), often referred to as Theodoric, was king of the Germanic Ostrogoths, ruler of Italy, regent of the Visigoths, and a viceroy of the Eastern Roman Empire. His Gothic name Þiudareiks translates into "people-king" or "ruler of the people". Theoderic was born in Pannonia in 454, after his people had defeated the Huns at the Battle of Nedao. His father was King Theodemir, a Germanic Amali nobleman, and his mother was Ereleuva. Theoderic grew up as a hostage in Constantinople, receiving a privileged education, and he succeeded his father as leader of the Pannonian Ostrogoths in 473. Settling his people in lower Moesia, Theoderic came into conflict with Thracian Ostrogoths led by Theodoric Strabo, whom he eventually supplanted, uniting the peoples in 484. Byzantine Emperor Zeno subsequently gave him the title of Patrician and the office of Magister militum (master of the soldiers), and even appointed him as Roman Consul. Seeking further gains, Theoderic frequently ravaged the provinces of the Eastern Roman Empire, eventually threatening Constantinople itself. In 488, Emperor Zeno ordered Theoderic to overthrow the German Foederatus Odoacer, who had likewise been made patrician and even King of Italy, but who had since betrayed Zeno, supporting the rebellious Leontius. After a victorious three-year war, Theoderic killed Odoacer with his own hands, settled his 100,000 to 200,000 people in Italy, and founded an Ostrogothic Kingdom based in Ravenna. While he promoted separation between the Arian Ostrogoths and the Roman population, Theoderic stressed the importance of racial harmony,though intermarriage was outlawed. Seeking to restore the glory of Ancient Rome, he ruled Italy in its most peaceful and prosperous period since Valentinian, until his death in 526. Memories of his reign made him a hero of German legend as Dietrich von Bern. (The above from Wikipedia.)

PICTURES

Theodoric in Ravenna.

Here below you see a photograph of Theodoric's tomb in Ravenna, the single most elaborate and influential work of architecture of the "Gothic" period of  the late Roman Imperial period. It was a model for Charlemagne's cathedral in Aachen, Germany.

From Wikipedia: The current structure of the mausoleum is divided into two decagonal orders, one above the other; both are made of Istria stone. Its roof is a single 300–ton Istrian stone, 10 meters in diameter. A niche leads down to a room that was probably a chapel for funeral liturgies; a stair leads to the upper floor. Located in the center of the floor is a circular porphyry stone grave, in which Theoderic was buried. His remains were removed during Byzantine rule, when the mausoleum was turned into a Christian oratory. In the late 19th century, silting from a nearby rivulet that had partly submerged the mausoleum was drained and excavated. It was inscribed with seven other "Early Christian Monuments and Mosaics of Ravenna" buildings as one of the UNESCO World Heritage Sites in 1996. According to the ICOMOS evaluation, "the significance of the mausoleum lies in its Gothic style and decoration, which owe nothing to Roman or Byzantine art, although it makes use of the Roman stone construction technique of opus quadratum, which had been abandoned four centuries before" and in the fact that "it is the only surviving example of a tomb of a king of this period."

Anicius Manlius Severinus Boethius, c. 477 – 524 AD

 

At the right you see a fifteenth-century printed edition of Boethius' work The Consolation of Philosophy, printed in Ghent in 1485, with this beautiful hand painted rendition of Boethius with Lady Philosophy. This work was the most influential work of philosophy of the whole Late Antiquity period. Boethius was influential as the "Last Roman" or the "Last Classical Philosopher" before the onset of the Dark Ages. Boethius was the last of the bilingual Romans who knew all of the ancient Greek philosophy of Plato and Aristotle and also knew the whole of the Latin philosophical tradition. His greatest service to this tradition was to begin to translate all of Plato and Aristotle into Latin. This project came at a critical moment. The documents of the Greek philosophical tradition were all still available and therefore a scholar like Boethius could still conceivably complete this project if he had the time to do it.

Unfortunately, Boethius' time was short. In 525, he was executed by Theodoric in the mistaken belief that Boethius was plotting against him with the Byzantine emperor. This plot was a fiction and Theodoric lived to regret his stupid action. But for the history of philosophy the early death of Boethius was a tragedy that left the whole of the Medieval period with a truncated idea of what the Greeks had thought about things. It favored Aristotle since it was the work of Aristotle that Boethius managed to translate, and it neglected Plato because most of the Platonic works were not translated by Boethius. They were not translated into Latin until the Renaissance. Boethius is an extraordinary presence in the Middle Ages. Everyone with any education read and treasured The Consolation of Philosophy.

Here is more about Boethius from Wikipedia:

Anicius Manlius Severinus Boethius, commonly called Boethius (c. 480-524 or 525 AD), was a philosopher of the early 6th century. He was born in Rome to the ancient and prominent Anicia family, which included emperors Petronius Maximus and Olybrius and many consuls. His father, Flavius Manlius Boethius, was consul in 487 after Odoacer deposed the last Western Roman Emperor. Boethius himself entered public life at a young age and was already a senator by the age of 25. He was consul in 510 in the kingdom of the Ostrogoths. In 522 he saw his two sons become consuls. Boethius was imprisoned and eventually executed by King Theodoric the Great, who suspected him of conspiring with the Eastern Roman Empire. While jailed, Boethius composed his Consolation of Philosophy, a philosophical treatise on fortune, death, and other issues. The Consolation became one of the most popular and influential works of the Middle Ages.

REQUIRED READING

Reading Boethius. We will read the whole of The Consolation of Philosophy. It is only about 100 pages and a pleasure to read. Remember this was written while Boethius was in prison awaiting his fate. He had to consider that this might be his last work and therefore he examined his life and what was worth doing and what was worth learning. Therefore it is much more than just a reflection on classical learning and more than that, it is a reflection on the good life and why we are here.

RECOMMENDED READING

BELOW: Boethius imprisoned, discussing philosophy, as seen in this manuscript illumination by Gregorius of Genoa in 1385.

Justinian I  (Latin: Flavius Petrus Sabbatius Iustinianus, 482 – 14 November 565

 

During his reign, Justinian sought to revive the empire's greatness and reconquer the lost western half of the historical Roman Empire. One of the most important figures of late antiquity and the last Roman emperor to speak Latin as a first language,  Justinian's rule constitutes a distinct epoch in the history of the eastern Roman empire. The impact of his administration extended far beyond the boundaries of his time and domain. Justinian's reign is marked by the ambitious but only partly realized renovatio imperii, or "restoration of the Empire". Because of his restoration activities, Justinian has sometimes been called the "last Roman" in modern historiography. This ambition was expressed by the partial recovery of the territories of the defunct western Roman empire. His general, Belisarius, swiftly conquered the Vandal kingdom in North Africa, extending Roman control to the Atlantic Ocean. Subsequently Belisarius, Narses, and other generals conquered the Ostrogothic kingdom, restoring Dalmatia, Sicily, Italy, and Rome to the empire after more than half a century of rule by the Ostrogoths.

(The above excerpted from the Wikipedia article on Justinian)

READING:

Michael Grant, History of Rome, Part IX, "The Transformation of Europe."

REQUIRED READING

About the Secret History from Wikipedia: The famous Secret History (Lat. Historia Arcana) was discovered centuries later in the Vatican Library and published by Niccolo Alamanni in 1623 at Lyons. Its existence was already known from the Suda, which referred to it as the Anekdota. The Secret History covers roughly the same years as the first seven books of Procopius' earlier work of history, History of Justinian's Wars and appears to have been written after they were published. Current consensus generally dates it to 550 or 558, or maybe even as late as 562. The Secret History reveals an author who had become deeply disillusioned with the emperor Justinian and his wife, Empress Theodora, as well as Belisarius, his former commander and patron, and Antonina, Belisarius' wife. The anecdotes claim to expose the secret springs of their public actions, as well as the private lives of the emperor, his wife and their entourage. Justinian is portrayed as cruel, venal, prodigal and incompetent; as for Theodora, the reader is treated to the most detailed and titillating portrayals of vulgarity and insatiable lust combined with shrewish and calculating mean-spiritedness.

HIGHLY RECOMMENDED BOOK
ON JUSTINIAN AND THEODORA

PICTURES

San Vitale at Ravenna

LAST CLASS OF THE YEAR