History of France — Winter

Europe in 1300 had reached a cultural high point similar to Ciceronian Rome or Periclean Athens. The economy was robust.Traders from the great cities  sailed all across the known world. Universities studied the Classics, debated theology, dissected corpses in the medical schools. Translations from Greek, Hebrew, and Arabic works were being completed and published in all the great cities of Spain. Italian merchants had penetrated to the heart of the Chinese empire and Marco Polo had known the great Khan. Soon he would write a book about. Cathedrals in all the major cities of France, Spain, and Italy were the wonder of the world. How did this all happen?

 

Paris in 1300 was the center of the world.  No European capital had so dominated western culture since the days of Rome and Athens.  The University of Paris was the destination for every scholar in the Latin language world.  The court of the King of France was considered the most sophisticated in the world and other royal families sent their children to be educated in the court of His Most Christian Majesty.  Presiding over this international center of culture and religion was the spectacular King Philip le Bel–Philip the Handsome, Philip the brilliant, Philip the amazing. Philip embodied this nation at its peak of influence and power. And the fame and celebration of France went to the king's head. And he led the nation to heights of power but also to the extreme edge of tyranny.

REQUIRED READING:

Here is an excellent general history of France that will be very useful for our entire year.

MATERIAL ON THE WEB:

Kings of France

The 100 Years War began in 1337, when the very young King of England, Edward III, decided that he was the legitimate king of France rather than the man the French had crowned. Did he have a case? Yes, to an extent. But from the point of view of the French, his claim was fatally flawed because the French did not accept a female sovereign, and his claim came through his French mother. But this objection did not stop the aggressive young English King from proceeding with his war. And in the next 100 years plus, he and his armies ruined France. During the fourteenth century, France went from the position of the number one most powerful nation in all of Europe to total social and political collapse.  At the end of the fourteenth century the French monarchy was in a nation in shambles.  The king, Charles VI, was insane for long periods of time, the court was a pit of violent intrigue, the Queen was a scandal sleeping with whomever she might desire including, it is believed, the king's brother.  The economy was a disaster. The war had ruined it. The very borders of the nation were crumbling. And the Englsih occupied the northern third of the French nation. How did France survive?

REQUIRED READING:

Here is an excellent general history of France that will be very useful for our entire year.

RECOMMENDED READING:

The best book on fourteenth-century France is:

King Charles VI (1368-1422) was only 53 years old when he died, yet he had been the King of France for 42 years. He was a teenager when his father died and he became King of France. His reign began brilliantly with his youth in his favor and extraordinary good looks. For the first ten years, France celebrated its picture-book king with his blond locks and chivalric charm. The one day it all turned into a horror. He was struck with some kind of epileptic fit that left him unconscious. These fits attacked him again and again all during the remaining years of his long reign. During this royal dram, France fell apart. The English conquered more o fthe French countryside, the court fell to fighting, and by the death of the king in 1422, there was almost no France left.

1415 Battle of Agincourt
1422 Death of King Henry VI Death of King Charles VI
1422 King Charles VII succeeds to throne (Charles, 1403-1461)
1429 Joan of Arc comes to Charles at Chinon
1429 July 17, Rheims, coronation of King Charles VII
1431 Burn Joan of Arc in Rouen (The English control Rouen)
1435 Charles signs peace treaty (Treaty of Arras) with Duke Philip III of Burgundy
1451 Louis marries Charlotte of Savoy.
1456 trouble between Charles and son Louis, Louis flees to uncle Duke of Burgundy
1461 Aug 30, death of Charles VII, succession of his son Louis XI (King, 1461-1483)
WARS OF THE ROSES GOING ON IN ENGLAND (Hen VI vs. Ed IV -York)
1461 Louis comes to Paris accompanied by his protector, his uncle Duke Philip of Burgundy (Louis has been living at the court of Burgundy)
1467 death of Duke Philip of Burgundy, son Charles the Bold becomes Duke. he and Louis know each other extremely well since had lived together, Burgundy
1468 Meeting at Peronne, Crisis (Commines) Louis escapes with his life.
1472-1476 War between France and Burgundy.
1476 France/Louis wins.
1476 death of Duke Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy in Switzerland battle.

REQUIRED READING:

Here is an excellent general history of France that will be very useful for our entire year.

 

REQUIRED READING:

Here is an excellent general history of France that will be very useful for our entire year.

1483 death of King Louis XI. son Charles VIII to throne.
1491 Charles VIII marries the Duchess of Brittany, Anne.
1494 French invasion of Italy led by Charles VIII
1498 death of Charles VIII, cousin Louis of Orleans becomes Louis XII.

Joan of Arc (French: Jeanne d'Arc; ca. 1412 – 30 May 1431) is a national heroine of France and a Catholic saint. A peasant girl born in eastern France, she led the French army to several important victories during the Hundred Years' War, claiming divine guidance, and was indirectly responsible for the coronation of Charles VII. She was captured by the Burgundians, sold to the English, tried by an ecclesiastical court, and burned at the stake when she was nineteen years old. Twenty-four years later, on the initiative of Charles VII, who could not afford being seen as having been brought to power with the aid of a condemned heretic, Pope Callixtus III reviewed the decision of the ecclesiastical court, found her innocent, and declared her a martyr. She was beatified in 1909 and canonized in 1920. She is, along with St. Denis, St. Martin of Tours, St. Louis IX, and St. Theresa of Lisieux, one of the patron saints of France. (Wikipedia)

 

REQUIRED READING:

Here is an excellent general history of France that will be very useful for our entire year.

Joan of Arc saved France. When she died, she left behind a nation revived, but not yet rebuilt. Four kings worked on that project: Charles VII, Louis XI, Charles VIII, and Francis I. During the 100 years that these four kings governed, France began to rebuild its frontiers, its government, and its economy. All four of them contributed to the success of modern France. The one genius among them was Louis XI, one of the most brilliant kings who ever lived. But louis was a man not easy to like. His father began the project, he continued what his father began, and his son continued what he had achieved. Finally, a man who was no genius, Francis I, continued their work almost to the mid sixteenth century.

Charles VII, 1403-1461, reign, 1422-1461

Louis XI, 1423-1483, reign, 1461-1483

Charles VIII, 1470-1498, reign, 1483-1498

Louis XII, 1462-1515, reign, 1498-1515

1415 Battle of Agincourt

1422 Death of King Henry VI Death of King Charles VI

1422 King Charles VII succeeds to throne (Charles, 1403-1461)

1429 Joan of Arc comes to Charles at Chinon

1429 July 17, Rheims, coronation of King Charles VII

1431 Burn Joan of Arc in Rouen (The English control Rouen)

1435 Charles signs peace treaty (Treaty of Arras) with Duke Philip III of Burgundy

1451 Louis marries Charlotte of Savoy.

1456 trouble between Charles and son Louis, Louis flees to uncle Duke of Burgundy

1461 Aug 30, death of Charles VII, succession of his son Louis XI (King, 1461-1483)

WARS OF THE ROSES GOING ON IN ENGLAND (Hen VI vs. Ed IV -York)

1461 Louis comes to Paris accompanied by his protector, his uncle Duke Philip of Burgundy (Louis has been living at the court of Burgundy)

1467 death of Duke Philip of Burgundy, son Charles the Bold becomes Duke. he and Louis know each other extremely well since had lived together, Burgundy

1468 Meeting at Peronne, Crisis (Commines) Louis escapes with his life.

1472-1476 War between France and Burgundy.

1476 France/Louis wins.

1476 death of Duke Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy in Switzerland battle.

1483 death of King Louis XI. son Charles VIII to throne.

1491 Charles VIII marries the Duchess of Brittany, Anne.

1494 French invasion of Italy led by Charles VIII

1498 death of Charles VIII, cousin Louis of Orleans becomes Louis XII.

REQUIRED READING:

Here is an excellent general history of France that will be very useful for our entire year.

In the last decade of the fifteenth century, the vigorous young King of France seized upon a murky genealogical circumstance to pursue his family's dubious right to the kingdom of Naples. Resisting considerable domestic and international pressure, he assembled the biggest, best-trained, and best-equipped army that Europe had seen since the days of the Roman Empire and pushed over the Alps and descended onto the great plain of the Po.

The coming of the French to Italy, something that had been feared, recommended, debated, and denounced for all of the fifteenth century, moved two Italians forward to share the center stage with King Charles VIII for these early critical days of the invasion: Ludovico Sforza, ruler of Milan, and Piero de' Medici, ruler of Florence. The progress of the French would depend upon the positions taken by these two unpredictable leaders. Ostensibly, Ludovico supported the French and Piero opposed them, but as the days of the invasion passed, the complex relationship between these three men showed how much more there was to the situation than this simple statement of alliances.

The conflict between France and the various independent states that ruled the Italian peninsula in the fall of 1494 is fascinating, but equally intriguing is the personal battle between these three men and the way that they maneuvered their forces, schemed and flattered, conspired and lied, drove ahead and retreated, won and lost, as they attempted to retrieve from the horrors and complexities of this massive invasion their own political power and the tranquility of their state. This personal drama climaxed at the small Tuscan town of Santo Stefano di Magra where for one brief moment the three men met in the midst of their disturbing battle and then went off in three different directions never to meet again.

Behind the clashing egos we find the emergence of a whole new world. As the European mind was undergoing a radical change in the conception of the globe provoked by the news brought back to Spain by Columbus, so now one year after the explorer's return from the Caribbean, the expedition of King Charles VIII and the Italian response to it provoked a radical change within the whole system of European states leaving everything forever transformed. Let us observe this extraordinary moment and witness there the birth of modern diplomacy, modern government, and modern war.

 

REQUIRED READING:

Here is an excellent general history of France that will be very useful for our entire year.

King Francis I was born in 1494, the same year that King Charles VIII led a French army into Italy. It was due to a series of surprising family tragedies that left Charles with no living male relatives to succeed him in 1498, and brought about the same situation for King Louis XII, such that in 1515, when Louis died, his distant cousin Francis became King of France at the age of 21. Francis dominated France at the exact same time that Henry VIII was ruling England. The two monarchs met many times and were intensely jealous of each other. Who was taller? Who was the better athlete? Who had more women? The two men were almost exact contemporaries and their two deaths at close to midcentury left each nation in the hands of a child king: Francis II and Edward VI. Francis was the true Renaissance king, devoted to art, devoted to the Italian cultural excellence that we call the Renaissance. Think about one thing: Francis brought Leonardo da Vinci to live his last years in France. What greater devotion could we imagine to Renaissance Italy?

Michel Eyquem de Montaigne was one of the most influential writers of the French Renaissance. Montaigne is known for popularizing the essay as a literary genre. He became famous for his effortless ability to merge serious intellectual speculation with casual anecdotes and autobiography — and his massive volume Essais (translated literally as "Attempts") contains, to this day, some of the most widely influential essays ever written. Montaigne had a direct influence on writers the world over, including Blaise Pascal, René Descartes, Ralph Waldo Emerson, Stefan Zweig, Friedrich Nietzsche, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Isaac Asimov, Eric Hoffer, and perhaps William Shakespeare. In his own time, Montaigne was admired more as a statesman than as an author. The tendency in his essays to digress into anecdotes and personal ruminations was seen as detrimental to proper style rather than as an innovation, and his declaration that, 'I am myself the matter of my book', was viewed by his contemporaries as self-indulgent. In time, however, Montaigne would be recognized as embodying, perhaps better than any other author of his time, the spirit of freely entertaining doubt which began to emerge at that time. He is most famously known for his skeptical remark, 'Que sais-je?' ('What do I know?'). Remarkably modern even to readers today, Montaigne's attempt to examine the world through the lens of the only thing he can depend on implicitly — his own judgment — makes him more accessible to modern readers than any other author of the Renaissance. Much of modern literary non-fiction has found inspiration in Montaigne and writers of all kinds continue to read him for his masterful balance of intellectual knowledge and personal story-telling. (Wikipedia)

REQUIRED READING

Essays to read, see below and note that these Book numbers and essay numbers and titles are the same in all translations so if you have some other edition of the Essays the following will be using the same Book numbers and essay numbers. The Complete Essays from Penguin Classics also has a KINDLE version. This smaller less expensive edition that we use in class does not have a KINDLE version.

Essays to read for class:
Start with Montaigne's Note to the Reader, p. 3
BOOK ONE (I)
8. On Idleness
26. On the Education of Children
31 On Cannibals 39 On Solitude
BOOK TWO (II)
1. On the Inconsistencies of Our Actions
BOOK THREE (III)
2. On Repentance

PICTURES

A visit to Bordeaux, the wine region, and the chateau of Montaigne

Europe in 1300 had reached a cultural high point similar to Ciceronian Rome or Periclean Athens. The economy was robust.Traders from the great cities  sailed all across the known world. Universities studied the Classics, debated theology, dissected corpses in the medical schools. Translations from Greek, Hebrew, and Arabic works were being completed and published in all the great cities of Spain. Italian merchants had penetrated to the heart of the Chinese empire and Marco Polo had known the great Khan. Soon he would write a book about. Cathedrals in all the major cities of France, Spain, and Italy were the wonder of the world. How did this all happen?

 

Paris in 1300 was the center of the world.  No European capital had so dominated western culture since the days of Rome and Athens.  The University of Paris was the destination for every scholar in the Latin language world.  The court of the King of France was considered the most sophisticated in the world and other royal families sent their children to be educated in the court of His Most Christian Majesty.  Presiding over this international center of culture and religion was the spectacular King Philip le Bel–Philip the Handsome, Philip the brilliant, Philip the amazing. Philip embodied this nation at its peak of influence and power. And the fame and celebration of France went to the king's head. And he led the nation to heights of power but also to the extreme edge of tyranny.

REQUIRED READING:

Here is an excellent general history of France that will be very useful for our entire year.

MATERIAL ON THE WEB:

Kings of France

The 100 Years War began in 1337, when the very young King of England, Edward III, decided that he was the legitimate king of France rather than the man the French had crowned. Did he have a case? Yes, to an extent. But from the point of view of the French, his claim was fatally flawed because the French did not accept a female sovereign, and his claim came through his French mother. But this objection did not stop the aggressive young English King from proceeding with his war. And in the next 100 years plus, he and his armies ruined France. During the fourteenth century, France went from the position of the number one most powerful nation in all of Europe to total social and political collapse.  At the end of the fourteenth century the French monarchy was in a nation in shambles.  The king, Charles VI, was insane for long periods of time, the court was a pit of violent intrigue, the Queen was a scandal sleeping with whomever she might desire including, it is believed, the king's brother.  The economy was a disaster. The war had ruined it. The very borders of the nation were crumbling. And the Englsih occupied the northern third of the French nation. How did France survive?

REQUIRED READING:

Here is an excellent general history of France that will be very useful for our entire year.

RECOMMENDED READING:

The best book on fourteenth-century France is:

King Charles VI (1368-1422) was only 53 years old when he died, yet he had been the King of France for 42 years. He was a teenager when his father died and he became King of France. His reign began brilliantly with his youth in his favor and extraordinary good looks. For the first ten years, France celebrated its picture-book king with his blond locks and chivalric charm. The one day it all turned into a horror. He was struck with some kind of epileptic fit that left him unconscious. These fits attacked him again and again all during the remaining years of his long reign. During this royal dram, France fell apart. The English conquered more o fthe French countryside, the court fell to fighting, and by the death of the king in 1422, there was almost no France left.

1415 Battle of Agincourt
1422 Death of King Henry VI Death of King Charles VI
1422 King Charles VII succeeds to throne (Charles, 1403-1461)
1429 Joan of Arc comes to Charles at Chinon
1429 July 17, Rheims, coronation of King Charles VII
1431 Burn Joan of Arc in Rouen (The English control Rouen)
1435 Charles signs peace treaty (Treaty of Arras) with Duke Philip III of Burgundy
1451 Louis marries Charlotte of Savoy.
1456 trouble between Charles and son Louis, Louis flees to uncle Duke of Burgundy
1461 Aug 30, death of Charles VII, succession of his son Louis XI (King, 1461-1483)
WARS OF THE ROSES GOING ON IN ENGLAND (Hen VI vs. Ed IV -York)
1461 Louis comes to Paris accompanied by his protector, his uncle Duke Philip of Burgundy (Louis has been living at the court of Burgundy)
1467 death of Duke Philip of Burgundy, son Charles the Bold becomes Duke. he and Louis know each other extremely well since had lived together, Burgundy
1468 Meeting at Peronne, Crisis (Commines) Louis escapes with his life.
1472-1476 War between France and Burgundy.
1476 France/Louis wins.
1476 death of Duke Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy in Switzerland battle.

REQUIRED READING:

Here is an excellent general history of France that will be very useful for our entire year.

 

REQUIRED READING:

Here is an excellent general history of France that will be very useful for our entire year.

1483 death of King Louis XI. son Charles VIII to throne.
1491 Charles VIII marries the Duchess of Brittany, Anne.
1494 French invasion of Italy led by Charles VIII
1498 death of Charles VIII, cousin Louis of Orleans becomes Louis XII.

Joan of Arc (French: Jeanne d'Arc; ca. 1412 – 30 May 1431) is a national heroine of France and a Catholic saint. A peasant girl born in eastern France, she led the French army to several important victories during the Hundred Years' War, claiming divine guidance, and was indirectly responsible for the coronation of Charles VII. She was captured by the Burgundians, sold to the English, tried by an ecclesiastical court, and burned at the stake when she was nineteen years old. Twenty-four years later, on the initiative of Charles VII, who could not afford being seen as having been brought to power with the aid of a condemned heretic, Pope Callixtus III reviewed the decision of the ecclesiastical court, found her innocent, and declared her a martyr. She was beatified in 1909 and canonized in 1920. She is, along with St. Denis, St. Martin of Tours, St. Louis IX, and St. Theresa of Lisieux, one of the patron saints of France. (Wikipedia)

 

REQUIRED READING:

Here is an excellent general history of France that will be very useful for our entire year.

Joan of Arc saved France. When she died, she left behind a nation revived, but not yet rebuilt. Four kings worked on that project: Charles VII, Louis XI, Charles VIII, and Francis I. During the 100 years that these four kings governed, France began to rebuild its frontiers, its government, and its economy. All four of them contributed to the success of modern France. The one genius among them was Louis XI, one of the most brilliant kings who ever lived. But louis was a man not easy to like. His father began the project, he continued what his father began, and his son continued what he had achieved. Finally, a man who was no genius, Francis I, continued their work almost to the mid sixteenth century.

Charles VII, 1403-1461, reign, 1422-1461

Louis XI, 1423-1483, reign, 1461-1483

Charles VIII, 1470-1498, reign, 1483-1498

Louis XII, 1462-1515, reign, 1498-1515

1415 Battle of Agincourt

1422 Death of King Henry VI Death of King Charles VI

1422 King Charles VII succeeds to throne (Charles, 1403-1461)

1429 Joan of Arc comes to Charles at Chinon

1429 July 17, Rheims, coronation of King Charles VII

1431 Burn Joan of Arc in Rouen (The English control Rouen)

1435 Charles signs peace treaty (Treaty of Arras) with Duke Philip III of Burgundy

1451 Louis marries Charlotte of Savoy.

1456 trouble between Charles and son Louis, Louis flees to uncle Duke of Burgundy

1461 Aug 30, death of Charles VII, succession of his son Louis XI (King, 1461-1483)

WARS OF THE ROSES GOING ON IN ENGLAND (Hen VI vs. Ed IV -York)

1461 Louis comes to Paris accompanied by his protector, his uncle Duke Philip of Burgundy (Louis has been living at the court of Burgundy)

1467 death of Duke Philip of Burgundy, son Charles the Bold becomes Duke. he and Louis know each other extremely well since had lived together, Burgundy

1468 Meeting at Peronne, Crisis (Commines) Louis escapes with his life.

1472-1476 War between France and Burgundy.

1476 France/Louis wins.

1476 death of Duke Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy in Switzerland battle.

1483 death of King Louis XI. son Charles VIII to throne.

1491 Charles VIII marries the Duchess of Brittany, Anne.

1494 French invasion of Italy led by Charles VIII

1498 death of Charles VIII, cousin Louis of Orleans becomes Louis XII.

REQUIRED READING:

Here is an excellent general history of France that will be very useful for our entire year.

In the last decade of the fifteenth century, the vigorous young King of France seized upon a murky genealogical circumstance to pursue his family's dubious right to the kingdom of Naples. Resisting considerable domestic and international pressure, he assembled the biggest, best-trained, and best-equipped army that Europe had seen since the days of the Roman Empire and pushed over the Alps and descended onto the great plain of the Po.

The coming of the French to Italy, something that had been feared, recommended, debated, and denounced for all of the fifteenth century, moved two Italians forward to share the center stage with King Charles VIII for these early critical days of the invasion: Ludovico Sforza, ruler of Milan, and Piero de' Medici, ruler of Florence. The progress of the French would depend upon the positions taken by these two unpredictable leaders. Ostensibly, Ludovico supported the French and Piero opposed them, but as the days of the invasion passed, the complex relationship between these three men showed how much more there was to the situation than this simple statement of alliances.

The conflict between France and the various independent states that ruled the Italian peninsula in the fall of 1494 is fascinating, but equally intriguing is the personal battle between these three men and the way that they maneuvered their forces, schemed and flattered, conspired and lied, drove ahead and retreated, won and lost, as they attempted to retrieve from the horrors and complexities of this massive invasion their own political power and the tranquility of their state. This personal drama climaxed at the small Tuscan town of Santo Stefano di Magra where for one brief moment the three men met in the midst of their disturbing battle and then went off in three different directions never to meet again.

Behind the clashing egos we find the emergence of a whole new world. As the European mind was undergoing a radical change in the conception of the globe provoked by the news brought back to Spain by Columbus, so now one year after the explorer's return from the Caribbean, the expedition of King Charles VIII and the Italian response to it provoked a radical change within the whole system of European states leaving everything forever transformed. Let us observe this extraordinary moment and witness there the birth of modern diplomacy, modern government, and modern war.

 

REQUIRED READING:

Here is an excellent general history of France that will be very useful for our entire year.

King Francis I was born in 1494, the same year that King Charles VIII led a French army into Italy. It was due to a series of surprising family tragedies that left Charles with no living male relatives to succeed him in 1498, and brought about the same situation for King Louis XII, such that in 1515, when Louis died, his distant cousin Francis became King of France at the age of 21. Francis dominated France at the exact same time that Henry VIII was ruling England. The two monarchs met many times and were intensely jealous of each other. Who was taller? Who was the better athlete? Who had more women? The two men were almost exact contemporaries and their two deaths at close to midcentury left each nation in the hands of a child king: Francis II and Edward VI. Francis was the true Renaissance king, devoted to art, devoted to the Italian cultural excellence that we call the Renaissance. Think about one thing: Francis brought Leonardo da Vinci to live his last years in France. What greater devotion could we imagine to Renaissance Italy?

Michel Eyquem de Montaigne was one of the most influential writers of the French Renaissance. Montaigne is known for popularizing the essay as a literary genre. He became famous for his effortless ability to merge serious intellectual speculation with casual anecdotes and autobiography — and his massive volume Essais (translated literally as "Attempts") contains, to this day, some of the most widely influential essays ever written. Montaigne had a direct influence on writers the world over, including Blaise Pascal, René Descartes, Ralph Waldo Emerson, Stefan Zweig, Friedrich Nietzsche, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Isaac Asimov, Eric Hoffer, and perhaps William Shakespeare. In his own time, Montaigne was admired more as a statesman than as an author. The tendency in his essays to digress into anecdotes and personal ruminations was seen as detrimental to proper style rather than as an innovation, and his declaration that, 'I am myself the matter of my book', was viewed by his contemporaries as self-indulgent. In time, however, Montaigne would be recognized as embodying, perhaps better than any other author of his time, the spirit of freely entertaining doubt which began to emerge at that time. He is most famously known for his skeptical remark, 'Que sais-je?' ('What do I know?'). Remarkably modern even to readers today, Montaigne's attempt to examine the world through the lens of the only thing he can depend on implicitly — his own judgment — makes him more accessible to modern readers than any other author of the Renaissance. Much of modern literary non-fiction has found inspiration in Montaigne and writers of all kinds continue to read him for his masterful balance of intellectual knowledge and personal story-telling. (Wikipedia)

REQUIRED READING

Essays to read, see below and note that these Book numbers and essay numbers and titles are the same in all translations so if you have some other edition of the Essays the following will be using the same Book numbers and essay numbers. The Complete Essays from Penguin Classics also has a KINDLE version. This smaller less expensive edition that we use in class does not have a KINDLE version.

Essays to read for class:
Start with Montaigne's Note to the Reader, p. 3
BOOK ONE (I)
8. On Idleness
26. On the Education of Children
31 On Cannibals 39 On Solitude
BOOK TWO (II)
1. On the Inconsistencies of Our Actions
BOOK THREE (III)
2. On Repentance

PICTURES

A visit to Bordeaux, the wine region, and the chateau of Montaigne